by Mirele B. Goldsmith

Proceedings of the 33d Annual Meeting of the Environmental Design Research Association
Philadelphia, PA. May, 2002

Received award for best student full length paper

Introduction

The goal of this study is to explain why one significant institution, the Battery Park City Authority, altered its business practices by adopting green guidelines for the construction of a high-rise residential building. Gaining a deeper understanding of how institutions change is critical to the solution of environmental problems, including those that are created by conventional construction practices. Although technical improvements to these practices are now available, their existence does not guarantee that they will be used. Studies such as this one make an important contribution by uncovering why institutions, and the people who run them, adopt environmentally preferable innovations.

Understanding how change occurs in the construction industry is particularly important because of the impact that changes in how buildings are built could have on several environmental problems. A recent report by World Watch, an independent environmental research institute, describes modern buildings as sources of significant environmental destruction. The construction process uses resources and results in waste. The use of water, wood and energy in buildings contribute to problems such as water pollution, air pollution and deforestation (Roodman and Lenssen, 1995). After occupancy inefficient building designs are a determining factor in wasteful energy consumption during a building's entire useful life.

Green or sustainable design, the strategy adopted by the Battery Park City Authority, addresses the harmful environmental effects of buildings both during and after the construction process. Sustainable design introduces environmental considerations into the design phase as a building is planned, resulting in a construction process and building that are more environmentally responsible by multiple criteria. Specific practices that may be employed include installation of systems that conserve energy and water, reductions in the use of virgin materials that can be replaced with recycled products, and reductions in the use of toxic materials.

Unfortunately, the existence of technical solutions cannot insure the dissemination of environmental innovations like green design. Despite constantly improving knowledge and technology, change in the construction industry - and many other areas - is happening more slowly than environmental advocates would like. Understanding what made the Battery Park City Authority choose to adopt these innovations will make a contribution to our understanding of how governments, companies and entire industries can be encouraged to change the way that they do business.

Background

Battery Park City is considered to be one of the most successful examples of urban redevelopment. Located at the southern tip of Manhattan, adjacent to the internationally recognized World Trade Center, Battery Park City includes commercial and residential buildings. The centerpiece of the development is the World Financial Center. 30,000 people work in the community and there are approximately 7,000 residents. Battery Park City is known for its beautiful parks and popular esplanade along the Hudson River.

Battery Park City was built on 92 acres of landfill that were created between 1967 and 1976 as a result of the construction of the World Trade Center. In 1968 intense negotiations between Mayor Lindsay of New York City and Governor Rockefeller of New York State, led to an agreement for the City of New York to lease the site to the State for 99 years starting in 1970. The Battery Park City Authority (BPCA) was created by New York State to develop the site.

The BPCA is governed by a board of directors of three members appointed by the Governor of New York. The BPCA is authorized by the State to issue bonds to finance its activities. The BPCA's income is generated from lease payments by developers of buildings within the project and payments in lieu of taxes (PILOTs). By agreement with the City of New York, BPCA transfers to the City any PILOT funds collected in excess of operating expenses.

The first building in BPCA, an apartment complex, was completed in 1982. Unable to continue residential construction during the downturn in the New York real estate market, BPCA turned to commercial development. BPCA currently is home to major corporations such as American Express and Merrill Lynch. Construction continues today according to a 1979 master plan that allocates 42% of the land to residential use, potentially accommodating up to 14,000 housing units.

The Battery Park City Authority selects commercial developers for each site. Groups of sites have been offered at various times between 1979 and today in accord with market conditions. Over the years BPCA has created and revised design guidelines for each neighborhood within Battery Park City. These guidelines address the height, bulk, massing, materials, entrances and ground floor conditions for each parcel (David L.A. Gordon, 1997; BPCA web-site).

In January 2000 BPCA issued green guidelines for residential buildings that were incorporated into the bidding process for Site 18A at the corner of River Terrace and Murray Street. In June 2000 Albanese Development Corporation was selected to build a 26-story residential building with 250 apartments on the site. BPCA has since selected developers for two more residential buildings that will also conform to the green guidelines, and has indicated that the guidelines will be utilized for all of the remaining residential buildings in Battery Park City. In addition, work has begun on green guidelines for commercial and institutional buildings.

Human Behavior and Environmental Problems

The major environmental problems facing our world include global warming caused by fossil fuel use, diminishing supplies of clean water, and decreasing biodiversity. Finding ways to change human behavior is critical to the solution of every environmental problem. Scholars in different fields have approached this challenge from various perspectives.

Psychologists have suggested that we look at the relationship between human behavior and solving environmental problems in two ways. The first approach is to study individuals, examining the relationship between attitudes about the environment and behavior (Lipsey, 1977). Research in this vein has focused on individual repetitive actions such as recycling and energy conservation by consumers. Recent publications have emphasized the need to marry the behavior-change techniques reported to be fruitful to social marketing efforts (Geller, pre-publication; McKenzie Mohr & Smith, 1999)

The second approach is to begin with the problem, to determine how it might best be ameliorated, and then decide how the most influential actors may be influenced (Stern & Oskamp, 1987; Kempton, Darley & Stern, 1992; Stern, 2000). This approach points researchers toward institutions, such as governments, corporations and industries. Although few in number, empirical studies have examined the impact of employee participation and training on implementation of environmental strategies instituted by their employers (DeYoung, 1989-90; Bunge, Cohen-Rosenthal and Ruiz-Quintanilla, 1995).

Examining the question of changing human behavior in the context of business activities, scholars have traced the history of corporate responses to environmental concerns from "business as usual," the typical approach until the 1970's, to short-term curative approaches prompted by the need to respond to government regulation. Later, as business leaders began to perceive that there could be competitive advantages to considering environmental issues, they began to employ preventive approaches. These approaches include pollution prevention, life-cycle management, and industrial symbiosis. Only recently have firms begun exploring strategic approaches to prevention of environmental problems, including the role of industry in fostering sustainability through industrial transformation (Ehrenfeld, 1999; Cramer and Groenewegen, 1999; Hawken, Lovins and Hunter Lovins, 1999).

The concept of industrial transformation implies that truly substantive change requires that different parts of the industrial system work together. In the construction industry, for example, developers who purchase construction services, construction companies, firms that provide products used in construction and the many other participants in the construction process, all must transform the way in which they do business if the construction process and the end product are to be environmentally sound (Rocky Mountain Institute, 1998).

This study analyzes the Battery Park City Authority's adoption of green guidelines as an example of a first step toward industrial transformation. In a report prepared for the International Human Dimensions Programme on Global Environmental Change (IHDP) Cramer and Groenewegen argue that far-reaching change in industry will be required if society is not to exceed the earth's carrying capacity. Their study asks what causes companies to move toward change. The authors describe four drivers: "the coincidence of environmental performance and market opportunities; the internal structure and culture of the company; the industrial structure and network interactions; the influence of external stakeholders." They suggest that in-depth case studies, such as this one, are needed to develop understanding of how these driving forces operate on companies and interact with decision-making processes (Cramer & Groenewegen, 1999). This study was constructed to explore how the drivers identified by Cramer and Groenewegen might have influenced the BPCA's decision.

Methodology

When I first heard about BPCA's decision to build a green building I began to follow the story in the media. As an environmental activist, I was excited to learn that such a building would be built in my city. Since I am interested in how people become motivated to address environmental problems, I decided to study the impact of the experience of working on a green development project on employees' attitudes toward green practices in construction. Only when I began speaking with some of the people involved in the project was my attention drawn to the critical importance of BPCA's initial decision to develop green guidelines.

Once I changed my focus to the question of why the BPCA chose to develop the green guidelines, I selected the case study methodology. BPCA's decision is worthy of close examination because it represents both a significant and an exemplary example of the transition to green construction. As a major purchaser of construction services, with the capacity to influence multiple development teams (made up of developers, architects designers, engineers, etc.) and garner significant publicity for its effort, BPCA has the potential to further the cause of green construction. The case study method is appropriately applied to such examples because it can provide a holistic understanding of what happened and why. In addition, this method is considered to be appropriate for the study of complex contemporary social phenomena that cannot be studied in the laboratory but must be understood in context. (Yin, 1984)

Two sources of data are utilized in this study. Documents such as newspaper articles, press releases and the green guidelines themselves are one source. The other source is focused interviews with 14 people familiar with the green guidelines project or with BPCA. I used a rolling process to identify people with different perspectives, including BPCA employees, people in the construction industry who were involved in the project in various ways, representatives of environmental and other organizations, and experts in green design.

The interviews were structured loosely, giving the informants an opportunity to tell the story of the Battery Park City Authority's decision as they understood it. Follow-up questions solicited the informants' opinions about the impact of the various drivers theorized to have influenced BPCA's decision. Interviews were tape recorded with the permission of the informants. Informants were offered the option to have their name omitted from published reports of the study. (Since BPCA is closely watched in the industry, and this story has been covered in the media, I believed that some informants would be comfortable with speaking to me "on the record".)

Following each interview I reviewed what I had learned about the evolution of BPCA's decision and identified bits and pieces of the story that were still missing. I tried to fill in the missing pieces by asking about them in the next interview. Since each person I interviewed had played a different role in the decision-making process, each one had something different to tell me. I used the information I gathered from documents and from the interviews to piece together the story of BPCA's decision, as interpreted by different participants in the process. Finally, I analyzed the contribution that each of the drivers described by Cramer and Groenewegen may have made to this decision.

What Happened

The story of the green guidelines begins with the arrival of Tim Carey as the CEO of BPCA in April 1999. Carey was appointed to his postion by Governor George Pataki. Carey is a close political associate of Pataki, who has pursued a number of environmental projects. Political observers have suggested that Pataki, a Republican, has emphasized his environmental agenda to reassure Democrats and moderates.

It is not clear who first suggested the idea of developing green guidelines. Three people I interviewed took credit. Carey says that the he brought the idea with him to BPCA:

The Governor and I have been friends for longer than we like to admit, from before he was mayor of Peekskill. And he shares this passion for the environment, the outdoors. We like to tromp around in the woods and he likes to count birds…

Well when the Governor asked me to come here …he said "I have problems at BPC and I think there are some interesting things we can do with that urban laboratory." I talked to Jim Gill, the chairman, and agreed I would take the post…. After 3 or 4 months I met with the senior staff and I said, "ok what we are going to do here is we're going to build green buildings." And most of them said, "that's fine but no one is ever gonna build one and if you do this you'll put out an RFP and no one will respond to it and you'll be embarrassed, because no one will build a building." And I said, "Well I disagree. I believe people will build on BPC soil and they will build green buildings."

Two others, who did not want to be quoted, suggested that Carey got the idea from them. Carey and several staff members attended a conference on sustainable design in Chattanooga, and that experience seems to have helped to confirm his commitment to the project.

Carey and Bob Fox of Fox and Fowle, applied for a grant from the New York State Energy Research and Development Authority (NYSERDA) for funding to develop green guidelines. Fox and Fowle is an architecture firm with a long history of involvement in green design. Fox is active in the US Green Building Council, an advocacy organization based in the construction industry that promotes green design. Fox sought additional funding from the Carrier Corporation and the work was quickly begun in anticipation of the release of a request for proposals from developers for a residential building to be built on site 18A.

Fox and Fowle served as the lead consultant for the writing of the green guidelines that were to address high-rise residential construction. Bob Fox and his associate Peter Weingarten, convened a team including representatives of Flack and Kurtz (consulting engineers), Green October (environmental consulting firm), Rocky Mountain Institute (research institute), Carrier Corporation and Barney Skanska (construction company), NYSERDA and BPCA, to develop the guidelines. Fox and Fowle adopted the LEED guidelines developed by USGBC as a starting point for the BPC green guidelines. LEED is a certification program that recognizes developers for green design after a building is completed. The LEED guidelines do not address high-rise residential construction, but members of the team felt that LEED was the most current and comprehensive set of green guidelines available.

Led by Fox and Fowle's staff, the team met for several extended meetings to review drafts of the guidelines. The guidelines address issues including energy and water use, ventilation, materials and eventual operation of the building. The guidelines were completed in January 2000.

In February 2000 BPCA requested proposals for Site 18A. Nine developers (a number similar to the number of developers who had submitted proposals for other sites) chose to bid for the site and indicated in their proposals how they would conform to the green guidelines. In June 2000 BPCA selected the Albanese Development Corporation to build a 26-story residential building with 250 apartments on the site.

Drivers For Companies To Move Toward Industrial Transformation

Cramer and Groenewegen identify four drivers for companies to move toward industrial transformation. These drivers interact in complex ways to create change in an individual company or case. The following analysis suggests that all four drivers were factors in Battery Park City Authority's development of the green guidelines.

DRIVERS THAT INFLUENCED DEVELOPMENT OF BPCA'S GREEN GUIDELINES

Coincidence Of Environmental Performance And Market Opportunities

Many authors have suggested that there are potential economic advantages to firms that pursue environmental strategies. Cramer and Groenewegen identify three main approaches to pursuing these advantages: Improving efficiency, increasing market share by product differentiation, and "creating new market opportunities by developing revolutionary new product-market combinations." They assert that the risks inherent in the latter two approaches have discouraged most companies from taking them.

In this case, BPCA's leadership believed that developers would appreciate the advantages of product differentiation. In the words of Tim Carey:

"Here at BPCA we did the first building and now we're dong two more. Now there will be more and more, not just in BPC but elsewhere because I believe that as soon as we get this building up and people with means realize that they can live in the healthiest high rise building in the world, here in BPC, not only a beautiful community but the healthiest. There's a lot of asthma and respiratory disease not only in Harlem but on Park Avenue because as a friend of mine says we build ourselves gas chambers, we build these places and make our children sick. All of sudden here's this new technology that says here you can live in a place that is healthy. "

BPCA also expected to avoid most of the risk involved pursuing an environmental strategy for two reasons. First the New York City real estate market was very strong in the period in which the guidelines were put into effect. BPCA anticipated that in this market developers would be interested in any possibility for constructing a building in Manhattan, even at a relatively high cost in money, time and effort. BPCA estimated the additional cost at $30-35 per square food above the cost of conventional construction.

Second, BPCA's structure as a public authority means that it faces less competitive pressure than a private developer. BPCA leases land to private developers and can determine the structure of the lease. In order to encourage developers to build a green building BPCA could accept less than maximum income:

"Because it is a government agency and not for profit BPCA was able to take a bigger view and require that people spend more money building the buildings and therefore we will accept the fact that we will not get maximum income on the property and that's ok. If the highest bid is a dollar, and we get a green building out of it...that's ok." (Bob Fox)

Another of the Governor's initiatives is the Green Buildings Tax Credit. This idea was in the works for six years before it was approved in May 2000. Because the final regulations specifying what projects will qualify for the credit had not yet been issued when the green guidelines went into effect, the impact of the tax credit on the decisions of the developer of the first green building was probably minimal. However the tax credit plan was probably an influence on Tim Carey who viewed the green guidelines as a related aspect of the Governor's environmental program.

Internal Structure And Culture Of Company

Two aspects of BPCA's organizational structure made it possible for Tim Carey to initiate and carry out the green guidelines project within a short time of his arrival. First, the structure of BPCA is such that Carey, as CEO, has the authority to make such a decision and insure its implementation. BPCA is run by a board of directors of three members, all appointed by the Governor. The second aspect of BPCA's structure that facilitated the green guidelines project is that BPCA does everything with design guidelines. The green guidelines fit right into the normal way of doing things.

BPCA's structure and culture is also influenced by the fact that it is a public authority. As a public authority, BPCA has a great deal of flexibility on the one hand and on the other hand is sensitive to public opinion. Battery Park City is viewed as a success and has faced little public scrutiny or criticism in recent years. Still, BPCA's leadership is sensitive to public opinion. BPCA has lately been challenged regarding a part of the agreement between the BPCA and the City that committed BPCA to support low and moderate housing. Critics suggest that this is an area of BPCA vulnerability from which the green guidelines project may distract attention.

Those who question the Governor's environmental commitments see the green guidelines as an easy environmental win that the Governor hopes will distract the public from lack of action on more serious environmental issues. Glen Passanen of City Project said:

"The simple explanation is political. BPCA is an extension of state government and the governor wants to be known as an environmental governor. He has national ambitions and the environment is useful nationally for a middle of the road Republican. It is building a reputation. If we were to comment further…he is doing it at the same time as a fair number of folks, including us, say that he has done a lot of environmental damage to the same area in terms of the Hudson River Park Trust story where our complaint is that the environmental studies he in effect oversaw as the chief state executive were inadequate to the circumstances. The fear is that there will be a ribbon of development North to Trump City…(discussed another problem with sewage on the West Side of Manhattan)…it comes back to the governor being vulnerable on a lot of environmental issues so a green campaign at BPCA is useful political balancing to that criticism…"

Industrial Structure And Network Interactions

Cramer and Groenewegen point out in their analysis that companies usually must cooperate with other companies to implement more ambitious environmental improvements. This is certainly a major issue in the construction industry. Cramer and Groenewegen raise questions about three elements of such relationships: producer -supplier linkages, the role of financial organizations and the structure and geography of the particular industry. In the case of BPCA's green guidelines it is clear that relationships among people, companies and organizations were important factors enabling the project to move forward.

First, BPCA was able to draw on a network of people with expert knowledge of green design. Given BPCA's short timetable, it is difficult to imagine that the project could have been completed without this network. Many of the people were brought together by Bob Fox, and many were connected through the US Green Building Council. The USGBC also provided the LEED guidelines that were an important tool in enabling the experts to respond to BPCA's request within the time allowed.

Cramer and Groenewegen mention that literature on lifecycle management and recycling emphasizes the role of the "central orchestrator". Although construction is a very different arena, BPCA can be viewed as a central orchestrator by virtue of its role as a large scale purchaser of development services with the potential to have a significant impact on the market for such services in New York City.

Another driver that falls into this category is the influence of a significant green design project that was completed shortly before the green guidelines were created. Four Times Square, a commercial building developed by the Durst Organization, received a tremendous amount of positive notice. The success of this building was a significant influence on the green guidelines project:

Without Four Times Square this would not have been done…I don't think anyone would have risked it, the risk factor, building a green high rise residential building if Four Times Square hadn't been completed…That pushed the envelope. And we were able to push it a little further with residential high rise. But no, I don't think it would have happened without Four Times Square." (Tim Carey)

Peter Weingarten, of Fox and Fowle, who worked on both projects said:

"By giving us the opportunity to do what we did there, and the press and publicity that project got was something Tim Carey and the governor recognized and it helped make their decision. I can remember many times in the meetings (about the guidelines) we said, everybody could not believe how much press Four times Square got. It was everywhere. We won several awards this year, we won a national AIA award. That kind of positive marketing and outreach really effected them. I think those guys who are really looking for future political gains realized the value of having that kind of press associated to them. So you know there are so many avenues that led to this. Certainly the Dursts are founding partners from this time forward in anything that happens in NYC as a green project. That's to their credit."

Influence Of External Stakeholders

In the case of private companies, government may be the most important external stakeholder. Governments influence companies through legislation, regulation and economic tools such as taxes. There are many other external influences on company policy, including the public. Cramer and Groenewegen suggest that companies usually respond to outside pressures defensively so that they rarely lead to transformative actions.

I originally assumed that BPCA would act more like a private company than a government entity. BPCA functions like a private company in that it is market driven and financed through bonds and self-generated revenues. This assumption led me to view the Governor and his political agenda as an external influence. However, BPCA may also be viewed as a government body exerting its influence on developers. This is certainly how Tim Carey views the green guidelines project:

"You're talking about the power of government to create a private market. It's no different than the refrigerators we talked about or the buses or this building. It's all utilizing the power of government to create a private market. Government markets can't carry it. If 12 years of Cuomo taught you anything it is that government cannot generate enough revenue to carry a state. No way, because they were just taxing things out of existence. What you need to utilize government for is to create private markets so that the private sector takes over and builds these buildings."

Cramer and Groenewegen emphasize the need for greater understanding of how external stakeholders can encourage companies to move toward transformation; little is known about how the involvement of the public actually influences such transformation by companies although some research has investigated how multi-actor processes can be used to resolve environmental problems. In this case BPCA was encouraged in the direction of green design by NRDC, provided with funding by NYSERDA (a state agency) and drew on the resources of the Rocky Mountain Institute and the US Green Building Council. External stakeholders played a role, although it is difficult to say how important.

Discussion

This analysis of BPCA's adoption and implementation of green guidelines reveals the influence of multiple factors driving change in the direction of industrial transformation. All of the drivers identified by Cramer and Groenewegen played a part in moving BPCA toward change, and these drivers were found to have interacted in complex and unexpected ways. Several finding are particularly intriguing.

First, I expected to find that BPCA, acting as a private company driven by the profit motive, would be motivated to exploit the opportunities presented by product differentiation by offering environmentally sound apartments to consumers seeking a healthy housing alternative. In fact the state of the real estate market was a significant factor but not because BPCA had identified a profitable market niche. Instead, the market supported change primarily because in a strong market, no obstacle was perceived to taking the risk of innovation.

Second, the complexity of the changes required to accomplish sustainable design would suggest that adoption of such an approach would require a long process of building support and acquiring competence. In fact, it appears that the structure of BPCA cut short this process. The concentrated power of the CEO and the way BPCA operates through design guidelines, and requests for proposals (RFPs), made it possible to make rapid change.

Third, I adopted Cramer and Groenewegen's model expecting to find that BPCA operated more like a private company than a government entity. In fact, political factors seem to be extremely important in understanding why BPCA adopted the green guidelines. There is evidence to suggest that the public sector is adopting green design more rapidly than the private sector, and BPCA's project may be an example of this trend.

Cramer and Groenewegen's framework highlights the complexity of the change process and is helpful in identifying the many factors that are involved. But to fully understand the change process, and to be able to use this understanding to help organizations change, further elaboration of this framework is needed. A more comprehensive framework will address the relative influence of the drivers, the influence of timing, and the relationship of the drivers to the quality of the outcome.

First, this framework must be extended to address the relative importance of the factors. The people I interviewed often focused on the most obvious factor, Tim Carey's political power, as the most important driver. I was not able to determine the weight of the other factors, despite their obvious influence. As this framework is developed, it will be useful to try to identify whether there are factors that are frequently more important than others in allowing transformative efforts to move ahead.

In regard to the second factor, this case suggests that timing is critical to the success of efforts to initiate change. A number of events seem to have occurred just at the right time to make BPCA's green guidelines project feasible. In particular, the completion of Four Times Square, the appointment of Tim Carey, and the availability of Bob Fox's network of people with experience with green design seem to have allowed the project to move ahead extremely quickly. Alan Traugott, a leader in the US Green Building Council suggested another factor:

"…any building last a long time so there was a recognition that you have to go ahead and make the decision now to do it this way…otherwise the opportunity to impact or create the change is lost and you have to wait 20 or 50 years for a building…BPCA…had these sites that were going to go through development and they said now is the opportunity to do this, otherwise you build and then you're stuck with it…the same with the tax credit…they saw the opportunity to influence a generation of buildings."

Finally, this framework does not address how the different drivers are related to the quality of the outcome. How will the various factors identified as influences on BPCA be manifested in the building itself? Will the building be more or less "green" because of these factors? On another level, everyone involved with this project viewed it as an opportunity to influence the construction industry in New York City and beyond:

"It's a great opportunity to make a huge statement. And whether Tim gets credit for it or not doesn't matter. It matters more to Tim than it would to someone else because Tim's a politician so they all need credit because who knows where Tim is going to go after this, but that certainly was on his mind from day one. Make it the standard for Battery Park City, then have that transfer as a standard for New York and everywhere else." (Fox)

It is important to understand how various drivers can influence the success of a project in terms of these more ambitious goals as well as how they influence the more specific outcome. A comparative study of a number of cases from the construction industry would be a productive next step to further develop the framework created by Cramer and Groenewegen and provide insights into these questions.

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